Investors and Other Stakeholders

Shareholders are the owners of a company and have residual claims on the company's assets after debts are paid. Stakeholders include any group or individual that can affect or is affected by a company's objectives. The shareholder theory focuses solely on maximizing shareholder value, whereas the stakeholder theory advocates for considering the interests of all stakeholders in corporate governance.

Investors can be categorized into shareholders and debtholders, with shareholders having residual claims and debtholders having fixed claims on the company's cash flows. Debtholders' claims are senior to those of shareholders.

The board of directors is elected by shareholders to oversee the corporation's activities and ensure management acts in the best interest of shareholders. The board's composition can include both inside and independent directors to balance interests and ensure governance standards.

Managers are responsible for the day-to-day operations and strategic direction of the company, under the oversight of the board. Their compensation structures are often designed to align their interests with those of shareholders and stakeholders.

Employees provide the necessary human capital and expect fair compensation, job security, and a safe working environment. They may also have financial interests in the company through equity-based compensation plans.

Customers expect products or services that meet their needs at reasonable prices and satisfactory quality. Their relationship with the company can influence the company's revenue and growth.

Suppliers provide essential materials and services to the company and are interested in timely payments and long-term business relationships. Their stability can be crucial for the company's operations.

Governments regulate companies and ensure they contribute to the economic and social welfare of the community. They are interested in companies complying with laws and regulations and being sources of tax revenue.

Debt holders have fixed and priority claims on the firm's assets and cash flows, requiring regular interest payments and principal repayment on maturity without decision-making power in corporate governance. Equity holders have residual claims, meaning they are entitled to what remains after all obligations are met, and they possess voting rights influencing corporate governance.

Debt is generally less risky for investors as it offers fixed returns and has priority over equity in bankruptcy situations. Equity, while riskier, offers potentially unlimited upside returns as shareholders benefit directly from any increase in the firm's value.

Conflicts arise due to the differing objectives of debt and equity holders. Shareholders might prefer high-risk, high-return projects and increased financial leverage to maximize returns, potentially at the expense of financial stability. In contrast, debtholders prefer lower risk to ensure the timely repayment of their investments.

Environmental factors include issues like climate change, pollution, biodiversity, and resource conservation. These factors can have direct or indirect material impacts on companies, particularly those in resource-intensive industries. Physical and transition risks are two types of risks associated with environmental factors.

Social factors pertain to a company's practices regarding its workforce, customers, and the communities it operates in. These include employee health and safety, diversity, data privacy, and community relations. Effective management of social factors can enhance employee productivity and reduce litigation and reputational risks.

Governance factors involve the standards and practices for running a company, including board composition, audit practices, and compensation policies. Strong governance can prevent corruption and mismanagement, as evidenced by historical corporate scandals and their costly repercussions.

This involves analyzing how ESG factors affect a company's financial performance and cash flows. Both positive and negative impacts of ESG factors need to be quantified and considered in investment decisions, affecting both equity and debt valuations.