Overview of Equity Securities

Common shares represent ownership in a company, entitling shareholders to dividends, voting rights, and a claim on assets during liquidation. Dividends are not guaranteed and depend on the company's profitability.

Preference shares rank above common shares for dividends and asset distribution upon liquidation but typically do not provide voting rights. Dividends can be fixed and are often higher than those of common shares.

Common shareholders usually have voting rights which can be exercised during corporate decisions. Voting can be statutory (one vote per share) or cumulative, allowing shareholders to concentrate votes on fewer candidates.

Dividends on preference shares can be cumulative, ensuring unpaid dividends are carried over, or non-cumulative, where unpaid dividends are forfeited. They can also be participating, allowing shareholders to receive excess profits.

These shares can be converted into a predetermined number of common shares, combining the benefits of fixed dividends with the potential for capital appreciation through conversion.

Public equity securities are issued and traded openly in stock exchanges, allowing for liquidity and price transparency. These securities must adhere to strict regulatory requirements and provide extensive disclosure to investors.

Private equity securities are not listed on public exchanges and are typically sold to institutional investors through private placements. They are characterized by their illiquidity, lack of price transparency, and limited regulatory requirements.

Private equity investments include venture capital, which provides funding to early-stage companies; leveraged buyouts (LBOs), where investors use significant debt to acquire a company; and private investment in public equity (PIPE), where private investors buy large stakes in public companies at a discount.

Direct investing involves purchasing and selling securities directly in foreign markets. This method exposes investors to foreign market regulations, currency exchange issues, and potentially less transparency and higher volatility.

Depository receipts (DRs) are securities that represent an economic interest in a foreign company and trade like ordinary shares on a local exchange. DRs simplify investing in foreign equities by reducing concerns about currency conversions and unfamiliar market practices.

GDRs are issued outside the company's home country and the United States, allowing companies to access capital in markets without the restrictions of their home country. They are often denominated in US dollars and traded on international exchanges like those in London and Luxembourg.

ADRs are US dollar-denominated securities that facilitate the trade of foreign equities on US exchanges, allowing foreign companies to raise capital from US investors. There are different levels of ADRs, each with specific regulatory and trading characteristics.

GRSs are shares that are traded on multiple stock exchanges around the world in different currencies. They offer flexibility as they can be bought and sold in different currencies without the need for currency conversion.

BLDRs are ETFs that track a portfolio of depository receipts, allowing investors to invest in a diversified set of foreign equities through a single transaction.

Total return on equity securities is derived from price changes (capital gains) and dividends. It can also include foreign exchange gains for securities like ADRs.

The risk associated with equity securities is primarily due to the uncertainty of future cash flows and total returns. This risk is often quantified using the standard deviation of expected total returns.

Companies in early stages typically reinvest earnings rather than paying dividends, affecting the return characteristics. Mature companies might pay regular dividends, impacting both risk and return.

Preference shares generally offer lower risk and return compared to common shares due to fixed dividends and priority over common shareholders in asset distribution upon liquidation.

Callable shares can be redeemed by the issuer at a predetermined price, limiting potential returns and increasing risk. Putable shares allow investors to sell back to the issuer at a predetermined price, reducing risk.

Equity securities represent ownership in a company and are used to raise capital, increase liquidity, and finance long-term assets and projects.

Market value of equity is determined by investor expectations and market conditions, reflecting potential future cash flows. Book value is calculated from the company's financial statements as total assets minus total liabilities, representing historical financial decisions.

ROE is a key metric used to assess how effectively a company's management uses equity to generate profits. It is calculated by dividing net income available to common shareholders by the average book value of equity.

The cost of equity is the return a company must offer to attract investors and maintain its share price. It is not contractually fixed and must be estimated based on the expected future cash flows and the risk associated with the investment.

This rate is the minimum return investors expect on their equity investments, reflecting the risk and future cash flow expectations. It varies among investors and influences the cost of equity.